Neuromuscular DiseasesNeuromuscular DiseasesНервно-мышечные болезни2222-87212413-0443Publishing House ABV Press59110.17650/2222-8721-2024-14-1-63-75LECTURES AND REVIEWSЛЕКЦИИ И ОБЗОРЫNerve transfer in children with acute flaccid myelitis for restoration of upper limb function (literature review)Транспозиция нервов у детей с острыми вялыми миелитами для восстановления функции верхней конечности (обзор литературы)https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6655-4108AgranovichO. E.АграновичО. Е.
Russian Federation

Olga Evgenyevna Agranovich

64–68 Parkovaya St., Saint Petersburg 196603

Ольга Евгеньевна Агранович

196603 Санкт-Петербург, ул. Парковая, 64–68

olga_agranovich@yahoo.comhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-0021-9008KomolkinI. A.КомолкинИ. А.
Russian Federation

2–4 Ligovskiy Prospekt, Saint Petersburg 191036

191036 Санкт-Петербург, Лиговский проспект, 2–4

H. Turner National Medical Research Center for Сhildren’s Orthopedics and Trauma SurgeryФГБУ «Национальный медицинский исследовательский центр детской травматологии и ортопедии им. Г.И. Турнера» Минздрава РоссииSaint-Petersburg State Research Institute of Phthisiopulmonology, Ministry of Health of RussiaФГБУ «Санкт-Петербургский научно-исследовательский институт фтизиопульмонологии» Минздрава Россииru01032024202414163750103202401032024Received:01032024Accepted:01032024Published:01032024Copyright ©; 2024, Agranovich O.E., Komolkin I.A.Copyright ©; 2024, Агранович О.Е., Комолкин И.А.2024Agranovich O.E., Komolkin I.A.Агранович О.Е., Комолкин И.А.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0https://nmb.abvpress.ru/jour/article/view/591

The term “acute flaccid myelitis” is used to describe a condition characterized by acute flaccid paralysis of the limb, as well as damage to the motor neurons of the spinal cord. The absence of specific treatment, severe neurological deficit that persists in 75–95 % of patients in the long term indicates its severity.

The aim of the work is to describe acute flaccid myelitis in children, modern methods of treatment, and estimate the effectiveness of nerve transfers for restoration of the upper limb function.

The search for publications was carried out in the PubMed/MEDLINE, Google Scholar databases from 2003 to 2022, and data from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (https://www.cdc.gov) were used. There were analyzed surgical treatments of 57 children with paresis of the upper extremities due to AFM (105 nerve transfers). Restoration of shoulder function (neurotization of n. axillaris, n. suprascapularis) was performed in 57 (54.3 %) patients, elbow flexion (neurotization of n. musculocutaneus) in 37 (35.2 %), elbow extension in 9 (8.5 %) (neurotization of the branch of n. radialis to m. triceps brachii), fingers flexion in 1 (1 %) (neurotization of the n. interosseus anterior branch), fingers extension in 1 (1 %) (neurotization of n. interosseus posterior).

The review demonstrated the effectiveness of nerve transfers in children with paresis of the upper extremities due to acute flaccid myelitis who were operated up to 1 year from the onset of the disease.

Термин «острый вялый миелит» используется для описания состояния, характеризующегося остро возникшим вялым параличом конечности, а также поражением двигательных нейронов спинного мозга. Отсутствие специфического лечения, тяжелый неврологический дефицит, сохраняющийся у 75–95 % пациентов в отдаленные сроки после перенесенного заболевания, свидетельствуют о его тяжести.

Цель работы – представить современные данные об остром вялом миелите у детей, методах его лечения, а также оценить эффективность транспозиции нервов для восстановления функции верхней конечности.

Поиск публикаций осуществлялся в базах данных PubMed/MEDLINE, Google Scholar за период 2003–2022 гг., также использовались данные Центра по контролю и профилактике болезней США (https://www.cdc.gov). Был проанализирован опыт хирургического лечения 57 детей с парезами верхних конечностей вследствие острого вялого миелита, которым была выполнена транспозиция 105 нервов. Восстановление функции плечевого сустава (невротизация n. axillaris, n. suprascapularis) проводилось у 57 (54,3 %) пациентов, восстановление сгибания предплечья (невротизация n. musculocutaneus) – у 37 (35,2 %), восстановление разгибания предплечья – у 9 (8,5 %) (невротизация ветви n. radialis к m. triceps brachii), улучшение функции сгибателей пальцев кисти – у 1 (1 %) (невротизация ветви n. interosseus anterior), восстановление разгибания пальцев кисти – у 1 (1 %) (невротизация n. interosseus posterior).

Представленный обзор литературы показал эффективность транспозиции нервов у детей с парезами верх‑ них конечностей вследствие острого вялого миелита в сроки до 1 года от начала болезни. При планировании этапности операций приоритеты следует отдавать восстановлению функции плечевого сустава в связи с высокой вероятностью спонтанного восстановления сгибания в локтевом суставе у детей.

acute flaccid myelitispolio‑likepoliomyelitisparalysisnerve transferострый вялый миелитполиомиелитоподобныйполиомиелитпараличитранспозиция нервов1. Hardy D., Hopkins S. Update on acute flaccid myelitis: Recognition, reporting, aetiology and outcomes. Arch Dis Child 2020;105(9):842–47. DOI: 10.1136/archdischild-2019-316817Hardy D., Hopkins S. Update on acute flaccid myelitis: Recognition, reporting, aetiology and outcomes. Arch Dis Child 2020;105(9):842–47. DOI: 10.1136/archdischild-2019-3168172. Sousa I.P. Jr., Burlandy F.M., Oliveira S.S. et al. Acute flaccid paralysis laboratorial surveillance in a polio-free country: Brazil, 2005-2014. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2017;13(3):717–23. DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2016.1236164.Sousa I.P. Jr., Burlandy F.M., Oliveira S.S. et al. Acute flaccid paralysis laboratorial surveillance in a polio-free country: Brazil, 2005-2014. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2017;13(3):717–23. DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2016.1236164.3. Lubelski D., Pennington Z., Tuffaha S. et al. Sciatic-to-femoral nerve end-to-end coaptation for proximal lower extremity function in patients with acute flaccid myelitis: technical note and review of the literature. Oper Neurosurg (Hagerstown) 2021;21(1):20–6. DOI: 10.1093/ons/opab057Lubelski D., Pennington Z., Tuffaha S. et al. Sciatic-to-femoral nerve end-to-end coaptation for proximal lower extremity function in patients with acute flaccid myelitis: technical note and review of the literature. Oper Neurosurg (Hagerstown) 2021;21(1):20–6. DOI: 10.1093/ons/opab0574. Messacar K., Schreiner T.L., Van Haren K. et al. Acute flaccid myelitis: A clinical review of US cases 2012–2015. Ann Neurol 2016;80(3):326–38. DOI: 10.1002/ana.24730Messacar K., Schreiner T.L., Van Haren K. et al. Acute flaccid myelitis: A clinical review of US cases 2012–2015. Ann Neurol 2016;80(3):326–38. DOI: 10.1002/ana.247305. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and Prevention. Acute Flaccid Myelitis (AFM). Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/acute-flaccidmyelitis/cases-in-us.html.Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and Prevention. Acute Flaccid Myelitis (AFM). Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/acute-flaccidmyelitis/cases-in-us.html.6. Messacar K., Asturias E.J., Hixon A.M. et al. Enterovirus D68 and acute flaccid myelitis-evaluating the evidence for causality. Lancet Infect Dis 2018;18(8):e239–e247. DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30094-XMessacar K., Asturias E.J., Hixon A.M. et al. Enterovirus D68 and acute flaccid myelitis-evaluating the evidence for causality. Lancet Infect Dis 2018;18(8):e239–e247. DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30094-X7. Dyda A., Stelzer-Braid S., Adam D. et al. The association between acute flaccid myelitis (AFM) and enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) – what is the evidence for causation? Euro Surveill 2018;23(3):17–00310. DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2018.23.3.17-00310.Dyda A., Stelzer-Braid S., Adam D. et al. The association between acute flaccid myelitis (AFM) and enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) – what is the evidence for causation? Euro Surveill 2018;23(3):17–00310. DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2018.23.3.17-00310.8. Knoester M., Helfferich J., Poelman R. et al. 2016 EV-D68 AFM Working Group. Twenty-nine Cases of Enterovirus-D68-associated Acute Flaccid Myelitis in Europe 2016: A Case Series and Epidemiologic Overview. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2019;38(1):16–21. DOI: 10.1097/INF.0000000000002188Knoester M., Helfferich J., Poelman R. et al. 2016 EV-D68 AFM Working Group. Twenty-nine Cases of Enterovirus-D68-associated Acute Flaccid Myelitis in Europe 2016: A Case Series and Epidemiologic Overview. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2019;38(1):16–21. DOI: 10.1097/INF.00000000000021889. Carballo C.M., Erro M.G., Sordelli N. et al. Acute flaccid myelitis associated with enterovirus D68 in children, Argentina, 2016. Emerg Infect Dis 2019;25(3):573–6. DOI: 10.3201/eid2503.170897Carballo C.M., Erro M.G., Sordelli N. et al. Acute flaccid myelitis associated with enterovirus D68 in children, Argentina, 2016. Emerg Infect Dis 2019;25(3):573–6. DOI: 10.3201/eid2503.17089710. Murphy O.C., Messacar K., Benson L. et al. Acute flaccid myelitis: cause, diagnosis, and management. Lancet 2021;23;397(10271): 334–46. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32723-9Murphy O.C., Messacar K., Benson L. et al. Acute flaccid myelitis: cause, diagnosis, and management. Lancet 2021;23;397(10271): 334–46. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32723-911. Al Awaidy S.T., Khamis F. Wild poliovirus type 1 in Oman: A re-emerging threat that requires urgent, targeted and strategic preparedness. Sultan Qaboos Univ Med J 2020;20(1):e1–e4. DOI: 10.18295/squmj.2020.20.01.001Al Awaidy S.T., Khamis F. Wild poliovirus type 1 in Oman: A re-emerging threat that requires urgent, targeted and strategic preparedness. Sultan Qaboos Univ Med J 2020;20(1):e1–e4. DOI: 10.18295/squmj.2020.20.01.00112. Fomban Leke R.G., King A., Pallansch M.A. et al. Certifying the inter ruption of wild poliovirus transmission in the WHO African region on the turbulent journey to a polio-free world. Lancet Global Health 2020;8(10):e1345–e1351. DOI: 10.1016/s2214-109x(20)30382-xFomban Leke R.G., King A., Pallansch M.A. et al. Certifying the inter ruption of wild poliovirus transmission in the WHO African region on the turbulent journey to a polio-free world. Lancet Global Health 2020;8(10):e1345–e1351. DOI: 10.1016/s2214-109x(20)30382-x13. Africa Regional Commission for the Certification of Poliomyelitis Eradication. Certifying the interruption of wild poliovirus transmission in the WHO African region on the turbulent journey to a polio-free world. Lancet 2020;8(10):e1345–e1351. DOI: 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30382-XAfrica Regional Commission for the Certification of Poliomyelitis Eradication. Certifying the interruption of wild poliovirus transmission in the WHO African region on the turbulent journey to a polio-free world. Lancet 2020;8(10):e1345–e1351. DOI: 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30382-X14. Heise C.O., de Oliveira A.J., Bhering T. et al. Nerve transfers for acute flaccid myelitis: A case series. Childs Nerv Syst 2021;37(1):211–5. DOI: 10.1007/s00381-020-04773-6Heise C.O., de Oliveira A.J., Bhering T. et al. Nerve transfers for acute flaccid myelitis: A case series. Childs Nerv Syst 2021;37(1):211–5. DOI: 10.1007/s00381-020-04773-615. Funahashi S., Nagano A., Sano M. et al. Restoration of shoulder function and elbow flexion by nerve transfer for poliomyelitis-like paralysis caused by enterovirus 71 infection. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2007;89(2):246–8. DOI: 10.1302/0301-620X.89B2.18348Funahashi S., Nagano A., Sano M. et al. Restoration of shoulder function and elbow flexion by nerve transfer for poliomyelitis-like paralysis caused by enterovirus 71 infection. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2007;89(2):246–8. DOI: 10.1302/0301-620X.89B2.1834816. Liao H.T., Chuang D.C., Ulusal A.E., Schrag C. Surgical strategies for brachial plexus polio-like paralysis. Plast Reconstr Surg 2007;120(2):482–93. DOI: 10.1097/01.prs.0000267420.76840.5fLiao H.T., Chuang D.C., Ulusal A.E., Schrag C. Surgical strategies for brachial plexus polio-like paralysis. Plast Reconstr Surg 2007;120(2):482–93. DOI: 10.1097/01.prs.0000267420.76840.5f17. Pino P.A., Intravia J., Kozin S.H., Zlotolow D.A. Early results of nerve transfers for restoring function in severe cases of acute flaccid myelitis. Ann Neurol 2019;86(4):607–15. DOI: 10.1002/ana.25558.Pino P.A., Intravia J., Kozin S.H., Zlotolow D.A. Early results of nerve transfers for restoring function in severe cases of acute flaccid myelitis. Ann Neurol 2019;86(4):607–15. DOI: 10.1002/ana.25558.18. Doi K., Sem S.H., Hattori Y. et al. Surgical reconstruction for upper-extremity paralysis following acute flaccid myelitis. JB JS Open Access 2019;4(4):e0030. DOI: 10.2106/JBJS.OA.19.00030Doi K., Sem S.H., Hattori Y. et al. Surgical reconstruction for upper-extremity paralysis following acute flaccid myelitis. JB JS Open Access 2019;4(4):e0030. DOI: 10.2106/JBJS.OA.19.0003019. Saltzman E.B., Rancy S.K., Sneag D.B. et al. Nerve transfers for enterovirus d68-associated acute flaccid myelitis: A case series. Pediatr Neurol 2018;88:25–30. DOI: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2018.07.018Saltzman E.B., Rancy S.K., Sneag D.B. et al. Nerve transfers for enterovirus d68-associated acute flaccid myelitis: A case series. Pediatr Neurol 2018;88:25–30. DOI: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2018.07.01820. Rabinovich R.V., Pino P.A., Aversano M. et al. nerve transfers for restoration of elbow flexion in patients with acute flaccid myelitis. J Hand Surg Am. 2022;47(1):91.e1–91.e8. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2021.02.029Rabinovich R.V., Pino P.A., Aversano M. et al. nerve transfers for restoration of elbow flexion in patients with acute flaccid myelitis. J Hand Surg Am. 2022;47(1):91.e1–91.e8. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhsa.2021.02.02921. Texakalidis P., Xenos D., Murthy N.K. et al. Upper extremity nerve transfers for acute flaccid myelitis: A systematic literature review. Childs Nerv Syst 2022;38(3):521–6. DOI: 10.1007/s00381-021-05419-xTexakalidis P., Xenos D., Murthy N.K. et al. Upper extremity nerve transfers for acute flaccid myelitis: A systematic literature review. Childs Nerv Syst 2022;38(3):521–6. DOI: 10.1007/s00381-021-05419-x22. Sun S., Bian L., Gao F. et al. A neonatal mouse model of enterovirus D68 infection induces both interstitial pneumonia and acute flaccid myelitis. Antiviral Res 2019;161:108–15. DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2018.11.013Sun S., Bian L., Gao F. et al. A neonatal mouse model of enterovirus D68 infection induces both interstitial pneumonia and acute flaccid myelitis. Antiviral Res 2019;161:108–15. DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2018.11.01323. Hixon A.M., Yu G., Leser J.S. et al. A mouse model of paralytic myelitis caused by enterovirus D68. PLoS Pathog 2017;13(2):e1006199. DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006199Hixon A.M., Yu G., Leser J.S. et al. A mouse model of paralytic myelitis caused by enterovirus D68. PLoS Pathog 2017;13(2):e1006199. DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.100619924. Messacar K., Sillau S., Hopkins S.E. et al. Safety, tolerability, and efficacy of fluoxetine as an antiviral for acute flaccid myelitis. Neurology 2019;92(18):e2118–e2126. DOI: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000006670Messacar K., Sillau S., Hopkins S.E. et al. Safety, tolerability, and efficacy of fluoxetine as an antiviral for acute flaccid myelitis. Neurology 2019;92(18):e2118–e2126. DOI: 10.1212/WNL.000000000000667025. Elrick M.J., Gordon-Lipkin E., Crawford T.O. et al. Clinical subpopulations in a sample of North American children diagnosed with acute flaccid myelitis, 2012–2016. JAMA Pediatr 2019;173:134. DOI:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.4890Elrick M.J., Gordon-Lipkin E., Crawford T.O. et al. Clinical subpopulations in a sample of North American children diagnosed with acute flaccid myelitis, 2012–2016. JAMA Pediatr 2019;173:134. DOI:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.489026. Kane M.S., Sonne C., Zhu S. et al. Incidence, risk factors and outcomes among children with acute flaccid myelitis: A population-based cohort study in a california health network between 2011 and 2016. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2019;38(7):667–72. DOI: 10.1097/INF.0000000000002276Kane M.S., Sonne C., Zhu S. et al. Incidence, risk factors and outcomes among children with acute flaccid myelitis: A population-based cohort study in a california health network between 2011 and 2016. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2019;38(7):667–72. DOI: 10.1097/INF.000000000000227627. Dinov D., Donowitz J.R. Acute flaccid myelitis a review of the literature. Front Neurol 2022;13:1034607. DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.1034607Dinov D., Donowitz J.R. Acute flaccid myelitis a review of the literature. Front Neurol 2022;13:1034607. DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.103460728. Helfferich J., Knoester M., Van Leer-Buter C.C. et al. Acute flaccid myelitis and enterovirus D68: Lessons from the past and present. Eur J Pediatr 2019;78:1305–15. DOI: 10.1007/s00431-019-03435-3Helfferich J., Knoester M., Van Leer-Buter C.C. et al. Acute flaccid myelitis and enterovirus D68: Lessons from the past and present. Eur J Pediatr 2019;78:1305–15. DOI: 10.1007/s00431-019-03435-329. Gordon-Lipkin E., Muñoz L.S., Klein J.L. et al. Comparative quantitative clinical, neuroimaging, and functional profiles in children with acute flaccid myelitis at acute and convalescent stages of disease. Dev Med Child Neurol 2019;61:366–75. DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.14030Gordon-Lipkin E., Muñoz L.S., Klein J.L. et al. Comparative quantitative clinical, neuroimaging, and functional profiles in children with acute flaccid myelitis at acute and convalescent stages of disease. Dev Med Child Neurol 2019;61:366–75. DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.1403030. Chong P.F., Kira R., Mori H. et al. Acute flaccid myelitis collaborative study investigators. clinical features of acute flaccid myelitis temporally associated with an enterovirus d68 outbreak: Results of a nationwide survey of acute flaccid paralysis in Japan, August– December 2015. Clin Infect Dis 2018;66(5):653–64. DOI: 10.1093/cid/cix860Chong P.F., Kira R., Mori H. et al. Acute flaccid myelitis collaborative study investigators. clinical features of acute flaccid myelitis temporally associated with an enterovirus d68 outbreak: Results of a nationwide survey of acute flaccid paralysis in Japan, August– December 2015. Clin Infect Dis 2018;66(5):653–64. DOI: 10.1093/cid/cix86031. Hopkins S.E. Acute flaccid myelitis: Etiologic challenges, diagnostic and management considerations. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2017;19(12):48. DOI: 10.1007/s11940-017-0480-3Hopkins S.E. Acute flaccid myelitis: Etiologic challenges, diagnostic and management considerations. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2017;19(12):48. DOI: 10.1007/s11940-017-0480-332. Yea C., Bitnun A., Robinson J. et al. Longitudinal outcomes in the 2014 acute flaccid paralysis cluster in Canada. J Child Neurol 2017;32(3):301–7. DOI: 10.1177/0883073816680770Yea C., Bitnun A., Robinson J. et al. Longitudinal outcomes in the 2014 acute flaccid paralysis cluster in Canada. J Child Neurol 2017;32(3):301–7. DOI: 10.1177/088307381668077033. McLaren N., Lopez A., Kidd S. et al. Characteristics of patients with acute flaccid myelitis, United States, 2015–2018. Emerg Infect Dis 2020;26(2):212–9. DOI: 10.3201/eid2602.191453McLaren N., Lopez A., Kidd S. et al. Characteristics of patients with acute flaccid myelitis, United States, 2015–2018. Emerg Infect Dis 2020;26(2):212–9. DOI: 10.3201/eid2602.19145334. Liao H.T., Chuang D.C., Ulusal A.E., Schrag C. Surgical strategies for brachial plexus polio-like paralysis. Plast Reconstr Surg 2007;120(2):482–93. DOI: 10.1097/01.prs.0000267420.76840.5fLiao H.T., Chuang D.C., Ulusal A.E., Schrag C. Surgical strategies for brachial plexus polio-like paralysis. Plast Reconstr Surg 2007;120(2):482–93. DOI: 10.1097/01.prs.0000267420.76840.5f35. Ochiai N., Matsumoto Y., Hara Y. et al. For how long do denervated muscles in children retain the ability to regenerate? Restoration of elbow flexion and shoulder function by partial nerve transfer in a child with long-standing poliomyelitis-like paralysis. J Orthop Sci 2019;24(2):195–9. DOI: 10.1016/j.jos.2018.10.014Ochiai N., Matsumoto Y., Hara Y. et al. For how long do denervated muscles in children retain the ability to regenerate? Restoration of elbow flexion and shoulder function by partial nerve transfer in a child with long-standing poliomyelitis-like paralysis. J Orthop Sci 2019;24(2):195–9. DOI: 10.1016/j.jos.2018.10.01436. Messacar K., Spence-Davizon E., Osborne C. et al. Clinical charac teristics of enterovirus A71 neurological disease during an outbreak in children in Colorado, USA, in 2018: An observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis 2020;20(2):230–9. DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30632-2Messacar K., Spence-Davizon E., Osborne C. et al. Clinical charac teristics of enterovirus A71 neurological disease during an outbreak in children in Colorado, USA, in 2018: An observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis 2020;20(2):230–9. DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30632-237. Kirolos A., Mark K., Shetty J. et al. NHS Lothian EV-D68 Associated AFM Study Group. Outcome of paediatric acute flaccid myelitis associated with enterovirus D68: A case series. Dev Med Child Neurol 2019;61(3):376–80. DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.14096Kirolos A., Mark K., Shetty J. et al. NHS Lothian EV-D68 Associated AFM Study Group. Outcome of paediatric acute flaccid myelitis associated with enterovirus D68: A case series. Dev Med Child Neurol 2019;61(3):376–80. DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.1409638. Bove R., Rowles W., Carleton M. et al. Unmet needs in the evaluation, treatment, and recovery for 167 children affected by acute flaccid myelitis reported by parents through social media. Pediatr Neurol 2020;102:20–7. DOI: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2019.08.009Bove R., Rowles W., Carleton M. et al. Unmet needs in the evaluation, treatment, and recovery for 167 children affected by acute flaccid myelitis reported by parents through social media. Pediatr Neurol 2020;102:20–7. DOI: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2019.08.00939. Emamhadi M., Andalib S. Double nerve transfer for restoration of hand grasp and release in C7 tetraplegia following complete cervical spinal cord injury. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2018;160(11):2219–24. DOI: 10.1007/s00701-018-3671-0Emamhadi M., Andalib S. Double nerve transfer for restoration of hand grasp and release in C7 tetraplegia following complete cervical spinal cord injury. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2018;160(11):2219–24. DOI: 10.1007/s00701-018-3671-040. Werner J.M., Berggren J., Kim G. et al. Recommendations for therapy following nerve transfer for children with acute flaccid myelitis. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr. 2021;41(2):209–26. DOI:10.1080/01942638.2020.1822981.Werner J.M., Berggren J., Kim G. et al. Recommendations for therapy following nerve transfer for children with acute flaccid myelitis. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr. 2021;41(2):209–26. DOI:10.1080/01942638.2020.1822981.41. Malessy M.J., Bakker D., Dekker A.J. et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging and control over the biceps muscle after intercostal-musculocutaneous nerve transfer. J Neurosurg 2003;98(2):261–8. DOI: 10.3171/jns.2003.98.2.0261Malessy M.J., Bakker D., Dekker A.J. et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging and control over the biceps muscle after intercostal-musculocutaneous nerve transfer. J Neurosurg 2003;98(2):261–8. DOI: 10.3171/jns.2003.98.2.026142. Murphy O.C., Messacar K., Benson L. et al. AFM working group. Acute flaccid myelitis: cause, diagnosis, and management. Lancet 2021;23;397(10271):334–46. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32723-9Murphy O.C., Messacar K., Benson L. et al. AFM working group. Acute flaccid myelitis: cause, diagnosis, and management. Lancet 2021;23;397(10271):334–46. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32723-943. Leechavengvongs S., Witoonchart K., Uerpairojkit C., Thuvasethakul P. Nerve transfer to deltoid muscle using the nerve to the long head of the triceps, part II: A report of 7 cases. J Hand Surg Am 2003;28(4):633–8. DOI: 10.1016/s0363-5023(03)00199-0Leechavengvongs S., Witoonchart K., Uerpairojkit C., Thuvasethakul P. Nerve transfer to deltoid muscle using the nerve to the long head of the triceps, part II: A report of 7 cases. J Hand Surg Am 2003;28(4):633–8. DOI: 10.1016/s0363-5023(03)00199-044. Teboul F., Kakkar R., Ameur N. et al. Transfer of fascicles from the ulnar nerve to the nerve to the biceps in the treatment of upper brachial plexus palsy. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2004;86(7): 1485–90. DOI: 10.2106/00004623-200407000-00018Teboul F., Kakkar R., Ameur N. et al. Transfer of fascicles from the ulnar nerve to the nerve to the biceps in the treatment of upper brachial plexus palsy. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2004;86(7): 1485–90. DOI: 10.2106/00004623-200407000-0001845. Merrell G.A., Barrie K.A., Katz D.L., Wolfe S.W. Results of nerve transfer techniques for restoration of shoulder and elbow function in the context of a meta-analysis of the English literature. J Hand Surg Am 2001;26(2):303–14. DOI: 10.1053/jhsu.2001.21518Merrell G.A., Barrie K.A., Katz D.L., Wolfe S.W. Results of nerve transfer techniques for restoration of shoulder and elbow function in the context of a meta-analysis of the English literature. J Hand Surg Am 2001;26(2):303–14. DOI: 10.1053/jhsu.2001.21518